Authors: Kenneth B. Adler; Sadis Matalon

Authors: Kenneth B. Adler; Edward Abraham

Author: Kenneth B. Adler

Authors: Rina Takamiya; Chi-Chih Hung; Sean R. Hall; Koichi Fukunaga; Takashi Nagaishi; Toshitaka Maeno; Caroline Owen; Alvaro A. Macias; Laura E. Fredenburgh; Akitoshi Ishizaka; Richard S. Blumberg; Rebecca M. Baron; Mark A. Perrella

High-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) is a nuclear protein that has been found to be a critical mediator of lethality in endotoxemia and sepsis. During the systemic inflammatory response, circulating levels of HMGB1 are increased, but in a delayed fashion compared with early inflammatory mediators. To counteract the inflammatory response of endotoxemia, a secondary anti-inflammatory response ensues in an attempt to prevent inflammation-induced tissue injury. One such cytoprotective gene that is induced during endotoxemia is heme oxygenase (HO)-1. HO-1, and its products of heme metabolism, possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties to counter the damaging effects of endotoxemia. In the present study, we wanted to determine whether tissue and circulating levels of HMGB1 are increased further in the absence of HO-1 during endotoxemia, and whether this increase may contribute to the pathobiology of endotoxemia. Lung inflammation, HMGB1 protein levels, and expression of HMGB1 in inflammatory cells were increased in HO-1^−/− mice compared with HO-1^+/+ mice. After the administration of LPS, tissue levels of HMGB1 were not increased further in HO-1^−/− mice; however, circulating levels of HMGB1 were higher when compared with HO-1^+/+ mice. HO-1^−/− mice treated with a carbon monoxide–releasing molecule or biliverdin showed a reduction in plasma HMGB1, which was associated with a marked improvement in survival. HO-1^−/− mice given HMGB1-neutralizing antibody showed improvement in survival compared with control antibody. These data suggest that exaggerated circulating levels of HMGB1 contribute to endotoxin-induced mortality in the absence of HO-1.

Authors: Adrian G. Rosas-Taraco; David M. Higgins; Joaquín Sánchez-Campillo; Eric J. Lee; Ian M. Orme; Mercedes González-Juarrero

Mice infected for 60 days with Mycobacterium tuberculosis were treated with aerosolized XCL1-targeting small interfering RNA (siRNA) to induce local and transient suppression of XCL1/lymphotactin (an important chemokine in tuberculoid granuloma formation). The local pulmonary siRNA therapy resulted in a 50% decrease in the total amount of xcl1 gene transcripts at 3 days, and 40 to 50% protein suppression 3 and 5 days after treatment. Reduced XCL1 expression in the lungs was associated with decreased numbers of T lymphocytes, reduction in the IFN-γ response, disorganized granulomatous lesions, and higher fibrosis when compared with control mice treated with either PBS or nontargeting siRNA. This indicates that a transient but strong modulation of the production of XCL1 in the lungs has a significant effect on the influx of IFN-γ–secreting T cells, as well as local pathology, but without significantly altering containment of the infection.

Authors: Tsutomu Shinohara; Traci Pantuso; Shizuka Shinohara; Mari Kogiso; Quentin N. Myrvik; Ruth Ann Henriksen; Yoshimi Shibata

The induction of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in tissue macrophages (M∅) increases prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) release, potentially down-regulating granulomatous inflammation. In response to Mycobacteria, local M∅ express COX-2, which is either nuclear envelope (NE)-associated or NE-dissociated. Persistent mycobacterial pulmonary inflammation is characterized by alveolar M∅ expressing NE-dissociated (inactive) COX-2 without release of PGE2. In this study, we examined COX-2 in alveolar M∅ after intranasal exposure to heat-killed Mycobacterium bovis BCG (HK-BCG). After administration, whole lungs of C57Bl/6 mice were lavaged with saline; COX-2 expression and PGE2 release by alveolar M∅ and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and nitric oxide levels in the lung lavage were monitored. Normal alveolar M∅ had undetectable levels of COX-2 on Western blots. However, 1 day after intranasal administration, almost all alveolar M∅ had phagocytosed HK-BCG and expressed NE-dissociated COX-2 without any increase in the release of PGE2. At 28 days after intranasal administration, 68% of alveolar M∅ still contained both BCG and the NE-dissociated form of COX-2. NE-associated (active) COX-2 was not observed in alveolar M∅. In contrast, 7 days after intraperitoneal injection of HK-BCG, peritoneal M∅ containing HK-BCG were no longer detected. At 28 days after intranasal administration, TNF-α and nitrite levels in the lung lavage fluid were significantly higher than those in controls. Our results indicate that mycobacterial pulmonary inflammation is associated with suppressed PGE2 production by alveolar M∅, with expression of COX-2 dissociated from the NE.

Authors: Agnieszka Krupa; Rafal Fudala; Dorota Stankowska; Tameka Loyd; Timothy C. Allen; Michael A. Matthay; Zygmunt Gryczynski; Ignacy Gryczynski; Yalla V. Mettikolla; Anna K. Kurdowska

Our previous studies revealed that the presence in lung fluids of anti–IL-8 autoantibody:IL-8 immune complexes is an important prognostic indicator for the development and outcome of acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Anti–IL-8:IL-8 complexes purified from lung edema fluids trigger chemotaxis of neutrophils, induce activation of these cells, and regulate their apoptosis, all via IgG receptor, FcγRIIa. Importantly, increased levels of FcγRIIa are present in lungs of patients with ARDS, where FcγRIIa is partially associated with anti–IL-8:IL-8 complexes. In the current study, we demonstrate the ability of anti–IL-8:IL-8 complexes to promote an inflammatory phenotype of human umbilical vein endothelial cells via interaction with FcγRIIa. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells cultured in the presence of the complexes become activated, as shown by increased phosphorylation of ERK, JNK, and Akt, and augmented nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Anti–IL-8:IL-8 complexes also up-regulate expression of intracellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1 on the cell surface. Furthermore, we detected increased levels of ICAM-1 on lung endothelial cells from mice in which lung injury was induced by generating immune complexes in alveolar spaces. On the other hand, ICAM-1 expression was unchanged in lungs of γ chain–deficient mice, lacking receptors that interact with immune complexes. Moreover, in lung tissues from patients with ARDS, anti–IL-8:IL-8 complexes were associated with endothelial cells that expressed higher levels of ICAM-1. Our current findings implicate that anti-chemokine autoantibody:chemokine immune complexes, such as IL-8:IL-8 complexes, may contribute to pathogenesis of lung inflammation by inducing activation of endothelial cells through engagement of IgG receptors.

Authors: Rebecca E. Oberley-Deegan; Young Min Lee; G. Eli Morey; Danielle M. Cook; Edward D. Chan; James D. Crapo

Mycobacterium abscessus is a rapidly growing environmental mycobacterium that can cause severe skin, soft tissue, and lung infections. M. abscessus grows inside macrophages, and these cells release a vast number of proinflammatory cytokines in response to infections. The metalloporphyrin, MnTE-2-PyP, is a broad antioxidant that reduces inflammatory cell signaling. Macrophage-like THP-1 cells were infected with M. abscessus in the presence or absence of MnTE-2-PyP. MnTE-2-PyP significantly decreased, in a dose-dependent manner, the number of M. abscessus organisms recovered from infected THP-1 cells 4 and 8 days after infection. Furthermore, when combined with clarithromycin, MnTE-2-PyP additively reduced the number of cells associated with M. abscessus. A mechanism of bacterial growth inhibition by MnTE-2-PyP was then elucidated. It was found that MnTE-2-PyP promoted the survival of infected THP-1 cells and increased fusion of M. abscessus–containing phagosomes with lysosomes.

Authors: Hidekata Yasuoka; Yukie Yamaguchi; Carol A. Feghali-Bostwick

We have previously shown that insulin-like growth factor–binding protein-5 (IGFBP-5) is overexpressed in fibrotic lung tissues and that it induces production of extracellular matrix components such as collagen and fibronectin both in vitro and in vivo. We recently observed mononuclear cell infiltration in lung tissues of mice expressing IGFBP-5. We therefore examined the role of IGFBP-5 on the migration of immune cells. Migration assays demonstrated that IGFBP-5 induced migration of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) in a dose-dependent manner. Preferential migration of monocytes/macrophages, natural killer cells, and T cells was observed. Moreover, the CD4/CD8 ratio of migrating cells was significantly higher in vitro and in vivo in response to IGFBP-5. IGFBP-5 resulted in preferential migration of activated CD4⁺ T cells and monocytes. Interestingly, IGFBP-5 also induced migration of primary human lung fibroblasts. Exogenous administration of IGFBP-5 induced activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling cascade but not PI3K in PBMCs. IGFBP-5–induced migration was blocked by the MEK1/2 inhibitor U0126, suggesting that IGFBP-5–induced migration occurs via MAPK activation. Furthermore, monocytes treated with recombinant IGFBP-5 expressed the mesenchymal markers α–smooth muscle actin and fibronectin in vitro and in vivo, suggesting that IGFBP-5 can induce the transformation of monocytes into mesenchymal cells. Collectively, our results suggest that IGFBP-5 induces cell migration via MAPK-dependent and IGF-I–independent mechanisms.

Authors: Dayna J. Groskreutz; Martha M. Monick; Ellen C. Babor; Toru Nyunoya; Steven M. Varga; Dwight C. Look; Gary W. Hunninghake

Individuals exposed to cigarette smoke have a greater number and severity of viral infections, including respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections, than do nonsmokers, but the cellular mechanism is unknown. Our objective was to determine the mechanism by which cigarette smoke augments viral infection. We hypothesize that cigarette smoke causes necrosis and prevents virus-induced cellular apoptosis, and that this is associated with increased inflammation and viral replication. Primary airway epithelial cells were exposed to cigarette smoke extract for 2 days, followed by 1 day of RSV exposure. Western blot detection of cleaved caspases 3 and 7 showed less apoptosis when cells were treated with cigarette smoke before viral infection. This finding was confirmed with ELISA and TUNEL detection of apoptosis. Measures of cell viability, including propidium iodide staining, ATP assay, and cell counts, indicated that cigarette smoke causes necrosis rather than virus-induced apoptosis. Using plaque assay and fluorescently-labeled RSV, we showed that although there were less live cells in the cigarette smoke–pretreated group, viral load was increased. The effect was inhibited by pretreatment of cells with N-acetylcysteine and aldehyde dehydrogenase, suggesting that the effect was primarily mediated by reactive aldehydes. Cigarette smoke causes necrosis rather than apoptosis in viral infection, resulting in increased inflammation and enhanced viral replication.

Authors: Gabriella Bergamini; Cristina Cigana; Claudio Sorio; Marco Della Peruta; Alfonso Pompella; Alessandro Corti; François A. Huaux; Teresinha Leal; Baroukh M. Assael; Paola Melotti

Anti-inflammatory properties of azithromycin (AZM) have been proposed as possible mechanisms of clinical beneficial effects in patients with cystic fibrosis (CF). Altered glutathione (GSH) transport in cystic fibrosis transmembrane regulator protein (CFTR)-deficient cells leads to the occurrence of oxidative stress that finally induces glutathione S-transferase (GST) activity. The present investigation was aimed to verify the effects of AZM on GST activity and expression in CF airway cells in vitro and in vivo. AZM exposure significantly decreased GSTT1 and GSTM1 mRNA and protein expression in IB3-1, restoring the levels to those observed in non-CF C38 cells, which also express lower levels of γ-glutamyltransferase (GGT) activity than IB3-1. In another CF cell line, 2CFSMEo-, AZM produced 45% reduction in GSTT1 and GSTM1 mRNA levels. AZM reduced GST activity by approximately 25% and 40% in IB3-1 and 2CFSMEo- cells, respectively. GSTP1 was similarly expressed in all CF and non-CF cells and was unaffected by AZM. The anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 down-modulated GST activity at similar levels, supporting a link between GST inhibition and anti-inflammatory properties of AZM. In bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of CF mice homozygous for the F508 del mutation, GSTM1 protein levels were undetectable after AZM treatment. The association between increased GST expression and activity, together with its reversal by AZM treatment in vitro and in vivo, suggest novel antioxidant properties for this drug. The issue whether decreased GST activity may directly concur to anti-inflammatory properties of AZM or is rather a marker of the oxidative status of CF cells will require additional studies.

Authors: Pratibha C. Joshi; Ashish Mehta; Wissam S. Jabber; Xian Fan; David M. Guidot

Chronic alcohol abuse impairs both alveolar epithelial and macrophage function, and renders individuals susceptible to acute lung injury, pneumonia, and other serious lung diseases. Zinc deficiency, which is known to impact both epithelial and immune cell functions, is also associated with alcohol abuse. In this study, chronic alcohol ingestion (6 wk) in rats altered expression of key zinc transporters and storage proteins in the small intestine and the lung, and decreased zinc levels in the alveolar compartment. Zinc supplementation of alveolar epithelial monolayers derived from alcohol-fed rats in vitro, or of the diets of alcohol-fed rats in vivo, restored alveolar epithelial barrier function, and these improvements were associated with salutary changes in tight junction protein expression and membrane localization. In parallel, dietary zinc supplementation increased intracellular zinc levels, GM-CSF receptor expression, and bacterial phagocytic capacity in the alveolar macrophages of alcohol-fed rats. Together, these studies implicate zinc deficiency as a novel mechanism mediating alcohol-induced alveolar epithelial and macrophage dysfunction. Importantly, these findings argue that dietary supplementation can overcome alcohol-induced zinc deficiency and restore alveolar epithelial and macrophage function, and therefore could be an effective treatment for the susceptible alcoholic lung phenotype.

Authors: Caroline Norez; Fabrice Antigny; Sabrina Noel; Clarisse Vandebrouck; Frédéric Becq

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a fatal, autosomal and recessive genetic disease that is mainly due to inactivating mutations in the chloride channel CF transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR). Sodium hyperabsorption by the airways, profound lung inflammation, and dysregulation of calcium homeostasis, are presumably causally related to loss of CFTR-dependent chloride function in patients with CF. Miglustat (N-butyldeoxynojirimycin, Zavesca), an inhibitor of the α-1,2 glucosidase, has been proposed for clinical use in CF because of its effect as a corrector of the defective trafficking of F508del-CFTR. In the present study, we show that daily treatment for 2 months with low concentrations of miglustat on the human CF nasal epithelial cell line, JME/CF15 (F508del/F508del-CFTR), results in progressive, stable, reversible, and sustained correction of F508del-CFTR trafficking, down-regulation of sodium hyperabsorption, and regulation of the calcium homeostasis. In conclusion, we provide here the first evidence that a respiratory CF cell can acquire a non–CF-like phenotype when chronically treated with low concentrations of a pharmacological drug.

Authors: Kiflai Bein; Scott C. Wesselkamper; Xiangdong Liu; Maggie Dietsch; Nilanjana Majumder; Vincent J. Concel; Mario Medvedovic; Maureen A. Sartor; Lisa N. Henning; Carmen Venditto; Michael T. Borchers; Aaron Barchowsky; Timothy E. Weaver; Jay W. Tichelaar; Daniel R. Prows; Thomas R. Korfhagen; William D. Hardie; Cindy J. Bachurski; George D. Leikauf

The etiology of acute lung injury is complex and associated with numerous, chemically diverse precipitating factors. During acute lung injury in mice, one key event is epithelial cell injury that leads to reduced surfactant biosynthesis. We have previously reported that transgenic mice that express transforming growth factor α (TGFA) in the lung were protected during nickel-induced lung injury. Here, we find that the mechanism by which TGFA imparts protection includes maintenance of surfactant-associated protein B (SFTPB) transcript levels and epidermal growth factor receptor–dependent signaling in distal pulmonary epithelial cells. This protection is complex and not accompanied by a diminution in inflammatory mediator transcripts or additional stimulation of antioxidant transcripts. In mouse lung epithelial (MLE-15) cells, microarray analysis demonstrated that nickel increased transcripts of genes enriched in MTF1, E2F-1, and AP-2 transcription factor–binding sites and decreased transcripts of genes enriched in AP-1–binding sites. Nickel also increased Jun transcript and DNA-binding activity, but decreased SFTPB transcript. Expression of SFTPB under the control of a doxycycline-sensitive promoter increased survival during nickel-induced injury as compared with control mice. Together, these findings support the idea that maintenance of SFTPB expression is critical to survival during acute lung injury.

Authors: Emmanuel Lorne; Xia Zhao; Jaroslaw W. Zmijewski; Gang Liu; Young-Jun Park; Yuko Tsuruta; Edward Abraham

mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) plays a central role in cell growth and cellular responses to metabolic stress. Although mTORC1 has been shown to be activated after Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 engagement, there is little information concerning the role that mTORC1 may play in modulating neutrophil function and neutrophil-dependent inflammatory events, such as acute lung injury. To examine these issues, we determined the effects of rapamycin-induced inhibition of mTORC1 on TLR2- and TLR4-induced neutrophil activation. mTORC1 was dose- and time-dependently activated in murine bone marrow neutrophils cultured with the TLR4 ligand, LPS, or the TLR2 ligand, Pam3 Cys-Ser-(Lys)4 (PAM). Incubation of PAM- or LPS-stimulated neutrophils with rapamycin inhibited expression of TNF-α and IL-6, but not IκB-α degradation or nuclear translocation of NF-κB. Exposure of PAM or LPS-stimulated neutrophils to rapamycin inhibited phosphorylation of serine 276 in the NF-κB p65 subunit, a phosphorylation event required for optimal transcriptional activity of NF-κB. Rapamycin pretreatment inhibited PAM- or LPS-induced mTORC1 activation in the lungs. Administration of rapamycin also decreased the severity of lung injury after intratracheal LPS or PAM administration, as determined by diminished neutrophil accumulation in the lungs, reduced interstitial pulmonary edema, and diminished levels of TNF-α and IL-6 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. These results indicate that mTORC1 activation is essential in TLR2- and TLR4-induced neutrophil activation, as well as in the development and severity of acute lung injury.

Author: Alan A. Wanderer